#1: Jones, A., Scanlona, E., Tosunoglu, C., Morris, E., Ross, S., Butcher, P., & Greenberg, J. (1999). Contexts for evaluating educational software. Interacting with Computers, 11, 499-516.
In recent years there has been an increase in educational software and with this increase has come the need to determine how best to evaluate the software. In this selection the authors discuss how to best evaluate the usability of a software program as well as the degree to which students can learn from the software. The focus of evaluation is how to determine if a program is valid prior to using it. One evaluation method is the Jigsaw model. The Jigsaw model encourages educators to look at four elements prior to selecting the software. These four elements are; specific learning tasks, general learning tasks, application operational tasks and system operational tasks. There are three levels and at each level the educator evaluates how each one of the tasks interact with the other. This model along with Squires and Preece design failed to evaluate the success of the software with actual learners. In response to early evaluations the CIAO! (context, interaction, attitudes, and outcomes) framework was designed. Context allows researchers to focus on the reason the software was developed and for what purpose, and interaction investigates the learning process, and outcomes analyzes the intended results. Three studies were conducted to determine the effectiveness of the CIAO! model. Although the results were mixed there were some commonalities. Given the type of study certain elements were difficult to evaluate such as learning outcomes and observations. In summary, additional research needs to be conducted to determine how to best evaluate software in an authentic environment with actual students. #2: Winslow, J., Dickerson, J., & Lee, C. (2013). Evaluating multimedia. Applied Technologies for Teachers (pp. 251-264). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt. The use of multimedia in the classroom has increased at an exponential rate in the past twenty years. It has become much easier and often quicker for educators to create and produce multimedia lessons which just a few simple clicks of the mouse. With so many learning resources available it’s important for educators to know how to evaluate them before deciding to purchase or use them in their classroom. In order to better evaluate these resources the authors designed a framework with eight dimensions. Each dimension is supported by a rubric which is used to rate that specific aspect. The first dimension is content quality which evaluates content validity, potential effectiveness, and ease of use. The next dimension is the learning goal alignment which determines if the goals of the tool are congruent with the goals of the course. The feedback and adaptation dimension assesses if meaningful feedback and specific student accommodations are met. Motivation, the next dimension, determines the amount of effort a learner will be willing to assert. The next two dimensions, presentation design and interaction usability focus more on the design itself. They evaluate if the resource is aesthetically pleasing as well as easy to use. The reusability dimension determines if the resource can be used across disciplines, levels and content areas. Finally, the standards compliance dimension evaluates the resource in terms of technical knowledge. If used properly, the criteria outlined should help educators quickly determine the validity of multimedia learning resources. #3: Lee, C. & Cherner, T. S. (2015). A comprehensive evaluation rubric for assessing instructional apps. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 14, 21-53. Retrieved January 22, 2015 from http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol14/JITEV14ResearchP021-053Yuan0700.pdf. This selection of text aims to provide educators with a complex and thorough way to evaluate online learning resources. The evaluation tool not only allows educators to assess the resource prior to use but provides designers with a set of guidelines to follow when designing and creating these applications. Technology is changing rapidly and unfortunately many of the rubrics used to evaluate online learning resources in the past do not consider the intricacies of an application and instead focus solely on computer software programs. Needless to say the rubrics of the past have their downfalls and shortcomings. In response to this need, the authors created a rubric that assesses twenty four different dimensions of an instructional app. Each dimension is supported by a five-point Likert scale with specific requirements for each rating. The twenty four dimensions have been divided into three categories; instruction, design, and engagement. The instruction component assesses eight dimensions. These dimensions include; rigor, links to 21st century learning, connections to future learning, ability to make mistakes and learn from them, feedback provided to the teacher, level appropriate content, opportunity to collaborate with peers, and differentiated instruction. The design element analyzes nine dimensions. These dimensions include; ability to save progress, ability to connect to other platforms, organized design, ease of use, easy to navigate, reasonable goals, clear and concise presentation, cohesive design that incorporates numerous elements, and awareness of different cultures. The final element, engagement, considers seven different dimensions. These dimensions include; learner control, active engagement, reasonable pace, ability of the individual to adjust certain elements to their personal liking, appeals to the target audience, aesthetically pleasing, and provides the opportunity to obtain relevant skills. The authors suggest that in order to successfully and appropriately use the evaluation tool described above one should determine how to categorize apps, truly understand the intricacies of the tool, spend some time on the app itself, and determine how you could incorporate the app in the classroom consistently. One final word of caution, technology changes daily which means the tool described may need to change as quickly as it does. #4: Greenhow, C., Dexter, S., & Riedel, E. (2006). Methods for evaluating online, resource-based learning environments for teachers. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 23(1), 21-28. In this selection of text the authors discuss methods for evaluating online teacher education programs. Specifically, they investigate resource-based learning environments. A resource-based learning environment is created for a specific group of people with a specific goal. Resource-based learning environments provide learners with a way to access information whenever they want. In addition, these environments do not have a specific teacher or assignments. They are designed and created so that learners can learn at their own pace whenever they want. The authors set out to design an evaluation tool that would help educators design and select resource-based learning environments for teacher education. First, they classified websites in four categories; knowledge-centered, community-centered, assessment-centered, and learner-centered. A good resource should have some elements of each of these categories. In order to evaluate each category a checklist was created that outlines key components within each category. By using the checklist teacher educators can ensure that the website represents the ideas about how people learn. The authors also suggest using the analysis of website traffic when creating or selecting a website. This data provides insight as to whether or not users return to the website, how long they spend on the site, and the pages that are least and most accessed. This information can help one determine the strengths and weaknesses of the resource in front of them. Next, the authors discuss the think aloud protocol. This protocol asks the learner to actually think out loud. In other terms, a learner’s thoughts and thought process is captured in the moment. The data collected from this protocol provides an inside look as to how information is perceived from a given resource. To test their method regarding the evaluation of resource-based learning environments the authors conducted a study of the e-tech website. Their research concluded that there are strengths and weaknesses to each of the elements described above. They noted that the elements can be viewed as contradictory which provides an interesting insight into the validity of the site. As is often the case, technology is changing at an exponential rate and the resources used to evaluate that technology will have to keep changing as well.
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#1 Derry, S., Sherin M. G., & Sherin B. (2014). Multimedia learning with video. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 785-812). New York: Cambridge.
In this selection of text the authors discuss the instructional benefits and challenges of using video for teacher professional development. At first glance one would assume that videos provide endless advantages for beginning teachers. Classroom videos allow the viewer the opportunity to not only learn from their peers but watch experienced teachers in action. New teachers can see first hand their strengths and weakness and receive valuable feedback on ways to improve. On the other hand, videos are often rich in content and full of detail which could lead to cognitive overload. This abundance of information could cause the viewer to miss vital information. Considering the views stated above the authors conducted research to determine if videos are an effective means for teacher education. Videos are used in teacher education in various ways. Some of these methods include video clubs (people gathering to watch and discuss video excerpts), problem-solving cycles (three workshops designed to help teachers plan, teach, and view their lesson), lesson study (collaborative lesson planning and team teaching), problem-based learning (students view video cases and then improve the lesson) and cognitive flexibility approaches (watch a series of videos and then compile the information to make future decisions). Some challenges associated with using videos are the infrastructure, content of the video, how the tasks within the video are structured, and the social structure. It’s also important to note that in terms of multimedia learning a designer should be cautious to avoid split-attention effect and redundancy. These are two factors that could lead to cognitive overload. A designer may consider segmenting information, pre-training and providing appropriate cues and signals to bring attention to key information. Although there a numerous challenges to using videos in teacher professional development there are also many rewards. Videos allow learners to do, say, engage and see in a way unlike any other learning platform. In watching the videos learners are able to identify what an experienced and successful teacher does and then “do” it themselves. It also forces new teachers to discuss and “say” what they witnessed in order to identify important learning strategies. Videos have the ability to entice and “engage” new teachers in an important topic. Finally, and maybe the greatest benefit is being able to “see” what a great teacher does in their classroom. #2 Rouet, J. & Britt, A. (2014). Multimedia learning from multiple documents. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 813-841). New York: Cambridge. This selection of text discusses the ideas of learning from multiple documents. The authors define documents as any textual piece of information that has a specific and identifiable source. The sourcing principle and the multiple-document integration principle are the two main principles surrounding learning from multiple documents. It’s important to note that the authors consider a source to include “who wrote it, when, who published it, for what purpose and so forth” (p 815). Within one document there may be numerous sources. These sources can be used to organize and retrieve data. Learning from multiple documents can be challenging for readers due to different writing styles or vocabulary. Learners also have to learn to combine the information from each document to form a cohesive summary. Due to these challenges a reader must possess the skills to adequately compare, contrast and then form a summary from multiple sources and multiple documents. The sourcing principles suggests that a learner’s understanding of a topic depends on its source. The sourcing principle have three processes. These processes suggest that you must locate and evaluate the source, use the source to interpret information, and remember the connections between source and content (p 823). Research suggests that students who pay closer attention to sources perform better but caution that identifying sources in a document is a skill that must be learned in and of itself. The multiple text integration principle proposes that learning from multiple sources leads to a more significant understanding of the information. The authors go on to suggest that learning from multiple sources helps the reader create links to the information and thus make learning more cohesive. When reading multiple documents learners often make endogenous links (links to prior sentences) or exogenous links (links to outside documents). However, reading from multiple texts does not always produce positive results. A designer should consider the prior knowledge of the learner before asking them to read multiple documents. In addition, researchers agree that reading from multiple documents requires a specific sets of skills. It’s important that these skills be taught before learners are asked to read from multiple sources. #3: Clark, R. C. (2014). Multimedia learning in e-courses. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 842-881). New York: Cambridge. Multimedia learning is a relatively new concept that has evolved exponentially in the last twenty five years. E-learning or online learning has experienced growth as a way to reduce cost and increase learning opportunities. E-learning is defined as any digital learning. This learning can occur on a computer, tablet, phone, etc.. Online learning can occur in many different formats, modes, methods. Some e-learning is designed as asynchronous (individual learning at one’s pace and time) or synchronous (teacher led and typically involved students interaction). As mentioned above the idea of e-learning is relatively new. This chapter provides a look at some of research that has been conducted on e-learning. The research revealed that in terms of effectiveness e-learning is no more or less effective than traditional learning environments. E-learning due to its construction appears to violate the modality and redundancy principles. Research suggests that given specific variables it is necessary to violate these principles to ensure learning. In addition, research revealed that designers should be cognizant of a learner’s prior knowledge and design e-learning appropriately. Finally, researchers discuss the allure of e-learning. E-learning provides an opportunity to provide an individualized learning experience for each learner in which they can experience at their own pace. It also allows the learner to interact with their peers and experience the learning simultaneously. One last benefit of online learning is the notion of guided discovery. Guided study provides the learner the opportunity to interact with the content and complete a relevant work-related assignments. #4: Pardamean, B., & Suparyanto, T. (2014). A Systematic Approach to Improving E-Learning Implementations in High Schools. Turkish Online Journal Of Educational Technology - TOJET, 13(3), 19-26. In this text the authors set out to determine the strategies and methods necessary to implement a successful e-learning program at a high school. The authors define e-learning “as a method to establish teaching and learning process through the use of Internet and information technology devices. (p 19). It consists of three components; the teacher, the learner, and the delivery method. These three components allow for six different groupings (teacher-student, student-content, etc.). Moodle (modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment) is an example of an open-course management system (CMS). Moodle provides a platform for student centered learning. The authors suggest that in order for a student to experience success with e-learning they must possess basic computer skills such as word processing and ability to navigate the internet. In order to test this theory, the authors conducted a research study to determine the relationship between a student’s computer skill and their achievement. As one may assume the results of the study revealed that a student’s computer skills directly correlates to their achievement through e-learning. (Please note that there were other factors that the authors contributed to success but overall the results revealed that those with computer skills demonstrated higher achievement scores.) Although the information revealed seems rather basic an instructional designer should consider a student’s computer skills before designing an e-learning platform. In my opinion, we too often assume that students know how to use and access basic applications because they have grown up with technology but fail to assess if these skills actually exist before asking students to use technology. #1 Lowe, R. K. & Schnotx, W. (2014). Animation principles in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 513-546). New York: Cambridge.
In recent years there has been a change in education to include more graphics and animations in educational material. Not too long ago text was the primary medium for communicating information to the learner but with advances in technology this is no longer the case. This selection of text focuses on the use of graphics in educational materials and the design principles one should consider when using animations. Animations provide the learner an opportunity to experience learning in a more realistic format. For example, an animation allows a learner to see how a car engine works or the processes involved in breathing. Animation is defined as, “a constructed pictorial display that changes its structure or other properties over time and so triggers the perfection of a continuous change” (p 515). One may assume that animations are superior to any other drawing or graphic but this is not the case. The benefits of using animations as opposed to static graphics depends on numerous factors and in some cases a static picture is preferable to an animation. When using animations, an instructional designer should consider the five principles outlined in the text. These five principles encourage the designer to clearly state the instructional purpose, ensure necessary text is located close to the animation, align perceptual attributes and cognitive requirements, support perceptual processing and cognitive processing and allow learners to interact with the material at the appropriate level (517-19). Furthermore, a designer should be cognizant of other design principles and be careful not to create cognitive overload for the learner. In addition, to better understand how to use animation in instructional designs the animation processing model was proposed. This model outlines five phases to learning from animation and focuses on “event units.” An event unit is specific chunk of a graphic and the behavior demonstrated during that event. Lastly, the speed of an animation is paramount to it’s success. Some animations may require increased speed while some may need to be slowed down. In conclusion, animations should be neither underwhelming (false understanding) or overwhelming (too much information to process). One way to ensure learners are not overwhelmed is to include cueing when appropriate. It may also be necessary to provide the learner with an opportunity to simply understand how to process an animation, regardless of the content. Finally, in order to maintain the integrity of the information portrayed in the animation a designer needs to work closely with the graphic designer to create an accurate model and not a model that is simply visually appealing. Animations can be valuable tools in multimedia learning but they are not always the appropriate tool to use. A designer should carefully consider the instructional purpose of the animation before including it in their design. #2 Plass, J. L. & Schwartz, R. N. (2014). Multimedia learning with simulations and microworlds. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 729-761). New York: Cambridge. Simulations and microworlds provide the learner the opportunity to explore the given content instead of simply presenting the content to the learner. Simulations “depict specific phenomena, processes, or systems” and microworlds build upon the notion of a simulation and allow learners to build “their own runnable system” (p730). In other words simulations let you interact with a process or system and microworlds not only let you interact but create as well. Digital games can also be considered simulations or microworlds depending on their instructional purpose. In terms of cognitive design theory simulations and microworlds are considered model-based inquiry because they allow the learner the opportunity to interact with the content in a “real world” setting. It’s important to note that these environments are often altered to ensure understanding. The text discusses various research studies in regards to using simulations in instructional designs. Overall simulations improve or maintain the amount of knowledge acquired by the learner. Some studies revealed that simulations are most effective when they are used to support traditional methods of instruction instead of replacing them. A designer should also consider multimedia design principles when creating simulations. It’s important that the designer reduce cognitive overload. The notion of cueing has been suggested to help learners decide how to access appropriate information and should be included in simulations. Research has also shown that simulations have the added benefit of emotionally affecting the learner and can lead to a deeper understanding of the content. Simulations also provide the learner with the opportunity to receive immediate feedback and correct their misunderstandings. Finally, among other things, simulations allow the learner a chance to control the speed and delivery of the instruction. Research has proven that allowing the learner to control the manner in which they learn is extremely beneficial. Studies have also proven that microworlds demonstrate many of the benefits listed for simulations. One added benefit is the idea of collaborating with one’s peers. Microworlds can provide the learner the chance to work with their peers to achieve a common goal. In summary, microworlds and simulations are valuable tools for designers to incorporate in their instruction. #3 Tobias, S., Fletcher, J. D., Bediou, B., Wind, A. P., & Chen, F. (2014). Multimedia learning with computer games. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 762-784). New York: Cambridge. One would assume that computer games enhance learning and they do but, the learner does not always learn what the designer intended. Computer games (or video games) “are multimedia environments that respond rapidly to users’ actions, present content as competition and/or challenges, include a storyline with specific objectives to be attained, and are conducted with specific rules for participation” (p 762-3). Computer games are played by all ages and offer the player (or learner) a chance to engage in a motivating environment. The speed and motivation to play help learners process information at a deeper cognitive level. Although the idea of computer games is relatively new, research has been conducted to determine the cognitive benefits. In various studies gaming has shown to improve spatial attention and mental rotation. In addition, in some cases, it has improved success in transfer tasks. That is transferring a skill learned in a game to the real world. Gaming has also shown to improve one’s attention and ability to multitask. Individuals who game were better able to switch from one task to another than those who do not. Finally, computer games provide learners with a sense of accomplishment and completion. Learners are often intrinsically rewarded for their progress on the game. This “feeling” stimulates neurons which in turn improves one’s cognitive abilities. Gaming has also shown to increase the cognitive functioning of seniors, individuals with attention deficit disorder, and those needing surgical skills. Interestingly, however, gaming may have negative effects on students. A study revealed that students who game tend to spend less time doing school work and participating in after school activities. Research also showed that when students were asked to play a game with the intent of learning they performed poorly on the assessment but when students were simply asked to play the game their performance improved. Without a doubt research has concluded that gaming can improve one’s motor skills, ability to multitask, and ability to make quick informed decisions but does it improve one’s ability to process content area knowledge. Continued research is needed to determine how to create a game that will help learners learn the intended information. #4 Höffler, T., & Leutner, D. (2007). Instructional animation versus static pictures: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 17, 722 -738. Over the past years the use of animations in instructional material has increased but there has been little research to suggest that animations are superior to static pictures. The authors conducted a research study to better understand what factors contribute to successful learning with animations (p 722). In order for learning to occur an individual must actively attend to the subject matter, select the appropriate information, process it, and then store it. Mayer and others have determined that the chances for learning improve when the learner is able to view an image and listen to a narrative. Both static pictures and animations provide the learner the opportunity to do just that. The authors hypothesize that the intended learning outcome should determine whether or not to use a static picture or animation. It’s important for a designer to consider the content, cognitive load, spatial ability, prior knowledge and purpose before choosing a static picture or animation. In order to determine which format is better the authors conducted a research study. The study revealed that in many cases the use of animations produced increased learning as opposed to static pictures. In addition, the results of the study indicated that representational animations are superior, animations help with procedural-motor knowledge, and cueing is often essential in animations. Furthermore, the study revealed that static pictures still serve a purpose given the situation and can be improved upon. Moving forward it will be important that researchers consider the effects of animations with higher levels of interactions. This current study only evaluated those with small or no interaction. #5 DeVary, S. (2008). Educational Gaming. Distance Learning, 5(3), 35-44. From a young age an individual is taught to “play.” This “play” is often seen on playgrounds, classroom, and neighborhoods. It is highly believed that it is important and essential that children be allowed time to play. So, how is this notion viewed in the world of computer gaming. In the last few years there has been a new genre of gaming called, “edutainment.” Edutainment is “education that has been placed within the framework of entertainment” (p 36). Often the software used for edutainment includes simulations. However, experts caution that if using simulations designers should make sure there is a balance between simulation, gaming, and content. If not, learners may miss the learning opportunity. In addition, games need to have clear objectives, goals and provide an opportunity for feedback. An effective game should be competitive but still require competition. Gaming however does not come without it’s challenges. First, it is quite expense to create and develop an educational game which is why there a so few on the market. The quality and availability of the purely entertainment games is difficult to compete with. Games have also proven to be highly addictive which could distract from the necessary learning. In addition, experts caution that technology is not the be end, end all to learning. They are concerned that although learners will learn technology skills will they learn the necessary content. Furthermore, they question whether learners will gather necessary reading comprehension skills. Although gaming has it’s challenges, it also provides numerous positive benefits. Some studies have revealed that even though there is no significant gain in achievement after playing computer games vs. not playing them, learners report that they enjoy the learning experience more with the games than without. Also, it has been reported that games improve a learner’s emotional intelligence and that learners are better able to multi-task, make quick decisions, and think creatively. Finally, games have been shown to improve a student’s motivation and desire to succeed. Designers should be careful when designing a game to ensure that all students regardless of their level are capable of reaching success. Students will not be engaged in the game if they feel it is impossible to win. In closing, educational computer games allow students a chance to feel connected, accomplished and competitive in this ever changing world. Computer games provide learners with immediate access to the world and help them develop essential cognitive skills. Gaming may be the way of the future but much research still needs to be conducted. #1: Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of instructional development, 10(3), 2-10.
One of the biggest challenges facing educators and instructional designers is the motivation of students. Teachers often suggest that their students just simply are not motivated to learn which they then claim is the cause of their poor performance on assessments. Another common phrase is that students simply do not care. The question is however, is it the teacher's responsibility to motivated students or does motivation come from within the individual student. This led to the ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) model. The ARCS model provides designers with a framework to create instruction with an increased motivational appeal (p 2). The ARCS model proposes that there are four components that must exist in order for learners to be motivated to learn. The first component is attention. The key is to not only get attention but maintain it without over stimulating the learner. The second component is relevance. The instruction should be obviously relevant to the learner. If the instruction is not relevant in content than it should be relevant in procedure. The next component is confidence. Learners must feel that they are capable and properly equipped to tackle the learning task in front of them. The final component is satisfaction. Students need to be satisfied with the work they produce and the knowledge they gain. It’s also important to teach learners how to be intrinsically satisfied with their accomplishments. A process was designed to help any instructional designer create instruction that adequately motivates the learner. A designer should clearer define the intended goal, design instruction to include relevant and appropriate motivational strategies, develop specific materials for the instruction and evaluate the motivation of instruction separate from test scores. The author conducted two research studies to evaluate the ARCS model. The results revealed that the ARCS model can be used to create motivational instruction but, as is the case with many studies, additional research is still required in multiple different settings. #2: Fredrickson, B.L. (2001). The Role of Emotion in Positive Psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226. This selection of text stresses the importance that positive emotions play not only in one’s well-being but in their ability to broaden and strengthen their cognitive abilities. It’s important to note that designers and educators should consider “practicing what they preach” when it comes to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Positivity can be infectious so the passion and excitement one feels can be transferred to others. In the case of educators and learners this excitement and enthusiasm for learning can be passed on to the learners. In the past there has been little research on positive emotions but quite a significant amount collected on negative emotions. The author suggests that this is due to the idea of specific action tendencies (p 1367). Negative emotions lead to a specific action whereas positive emotions do not. They are harder to see, measure, and collect meaningful day about. Another reason may be that positive emotions are often confused with affective states or physical sensations. These affective states require some sort of external sensation whereas positive emotions do not. In an effort to clear up some of the misconceptions of positive emotions the author developed the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. This theory suggests that “positive emotions appear to broaden people's’ momentary thought action repertoires and build their enduring personal resources” (p 1369). This idea is specifically important to an instructional designer because it proposes that if a learner experiences a positive emotion they will be more eager and susceptible to learning. Positive emotions impact a learner’s personal resources and change their physical, social, intellectual and psychological resources (p1369). Also, positive emotions are long lasting and believed to “broaden the scopes of attention, cognition and action, and they build physical, intellectual and social resources” (p1369). Another, benefit is that positive emotions can overcome and remove lingering negative emotions. Finally, positive emotions have been reported to improve relationships amongst peers and co-workers. This is extremely important to an instructional designer when seeking to incorporate meaningful collaboration in an instructional design. In conclusion, positive emotions help an individual feel better about themselves which results in a broadened mindset, increased well being, and the chance to impact those around you. #3: Isen, A. M., Nowicki, G. P., & Daubman, K. A. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122-1131. In this selection of the text the authors discuss the role positive affect has in problem solving. In broad terms, they suggest that if one is happy, their cognitive abilities expand which in turn increases their creativity. They believe that this “happy” feeling stimulates the brain, awakens different schema and increases the ability to process and store information. They conducted four experiments to test their theories. The methods and procedures differed between experiments but in the end the results were very similar. The data indicated that when subjects were shown a positive film or provided a small gift (appropriately packaged) they were able to respond positively to simple tasks. As is often the case, this research study provided additional questions that needed to be answered. For example, is creativity the result of arousal or a positive state and can you have a positive state without arousal. When designing instruction a designer should carefully consider the mood and feeling of their audience. It seems to make sense that the “happier” one feels the more likely they are to experience success and make cognitive connections. However, this selection of text is over thirty years old and I would encourage a designer to consider a more recent study when creating instruction. #4 Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 485-498. In this selection of text the authors suggest that including emotions in multimedia design will improve learning outcomes for the audience. Academic emotions are defined as emotions that directly impact “learning, instruction, and academic achievement in formal and informal settings” (p 485). Both positive and negative emotions have the ability to be activating or deactivating. Motivation is often linked to positive emotions. A learner is more likely to be motivated by a positive emotion than a negative one. Positive emotions can be a valuable component in cognition. Positive emotions can aid in information processing, negotiation processing, and communication processing among others. In terms of multimedia learning emotions can be viewed as extraneous cognitive load. That is to say, a learner has a limited capacity to store and process information and adding unnecessary information to the material will have a negative impact on the learner. On the other hand, emotions can also be a facilitator to learning. The emotions as facilitator of learning hypothesis proposes “that experiencing positive emotions during the learning process can enhance learning…” (p 487). It goes on to suggest that that positive emotions will not only increase learning but increase the germane cognitive load, increase motivation, and improve satisfaction with the learning experience (p. 487). In order to test this theory the authors conducted a research study. They created a positive emotion rich environment in which the learner would engage and learn. The environment incorporated numerous design principles in terms of colors and shapes to ensure that it was visually stimulating and inviting. During the study they examined the difference between positive emotions induced externally and internally. Overall learners performed better when the emotions were induced internally. In addition, the results revealed that positive emotions not only aid learning but at time can enhance it as well. Finally, it’s important to note that positive emotions were introduced through the design itself. This information is highly valuable for any instructional designer. #5 Mayer, R. E. (2003). Social cues in multimedia learning: Role of speaker’s voice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 419-425. This selection of text examines the role a speaker’s voice plays in multimedia learning. When a speaker’s voice provides information in can be viewed as a social conversation or information delivery. Research proposes that learning is improved when the learner engages in social conversation with the computer. In other words, the learner is invested in a conversation with the speaker’s voice and therefore is more inclined to learn and interpret the information presented. It’s important to note that when learning occurs as a social conversation the learner is able to recall schema that allows them to not only process the information but interpret it as well. The schema associated with purely receiving information does not typically encourage the learner to interpret the information. It is because of these ideas that the authors propose the social agency theory. The theory proposes that social cues lead to the retrieval of the social conversation schema. Since, learning is viewed as a social event this theory allows learners to experience learning as if they are in a conversation with someone. The authors urge that in order for this theory to be successful the speaker’s voice must be socially appealing. To test their theory they conducted two research studies. The studies evaluated the differences between a human American English voice, a human accented English voice, and a computer generated voice. The results determined that those who were engaged in the American English voice outperformed all of these groups. This in turn proves that learning is improved when learners are engaged in a social conversation. In conclusion, this information is vital for an instructional designer to consider when creating instruction. #6: Sparrow L, Hurst C. Effecting Affect: Developing a Positive Attitude to Primary Mathematics Learning. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom [serial online]. January 1, 2010;15(1):18-24. Available from: ERIC, Ipswich, MA. Accessed April 3, 2016. Emotions play a major role in one’s education. The way one feels toward a specific subject matter or topic can determine how they will perform in the course. This article takes a closer look at one’s feeling about mathematics. College students studying mathematics were asked about their experiences in math classes in elementary school. Many reported a negative affect. Specifically, they were bored, discouraged, and often felt humiliated. The authors propose that it is these experiences that can determine one’s feelings towards math in subsequent years of education. They go on to add that it is often more difficult to change an individual’s negative connotation and this may solidify the reason that one continues to feel negative towards mathematics. In their opinion, strategies to change an individual's affect towards learning and mathematics are “variety of experiences, clarity of purpose, and success and understanding for children” (p 19). They propose allowing the student to interact with the material in a variety of formats and to ensure that the lesson is relevant and engaging. In addition, it’s essential that the teacher (or designer) always explain explicitly the objective and expected outcomes for the lesson. Finally, instruction should be differentiated and designed so all students have the opportunity to achieve success. Overall, learning should be an enjoyable and positive experience. Designers need to create instruction that provides all students the chance to be successful. #1 Johnson, C. & Priest, H. A. (2014). The feedback principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 449-463). New York: Cambridge.
(e.g. Chapter 19) Feedback is a valuable tool in instruction. Feedback provides students an opportunity “to evaluate their responses, identify a discrepancy in their knowledge, and repair faulty knowledge” (p 449). Explanatory feedback and corrective feedback are the two main forms of feedback. Explanatory feedback explains to the learner why their answer was right or wrong and corrective feedback simply tells the learner that their answer was right or wrong. Numerous research studies agree that learning is increased when learners are presented with explanatory feedback instead of corrective feedback. This research has led to the feedback principle which states, “that novice students learn better when they receive explanatory feedback” (p 458). The feedback principle is based on the general ideas of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML). In order to adhere to the ideas of CTML the feedback principle attempts to reduce cognitive load thus freeing up space for a learner to select and process information. When learners are provided explanatory feedback they are often guided to the correct answer and do not need to use additional time or memory to determine their mistakes. If an instructional designer chooses to apply the feedback principle in their instruction it’s important to take into account other design principles. For example, the modality principle suggests that learners learn best when information is presented in two modes. When providing feedback researchers suggest, allowing learners to see a visual representation of their work and hear the feedback through a narrative. They state that this will produce improved results. One should also be cognizant of the differences between individual learners and relevant design principles. For example, students with high spatial ability tend to receive explanatory feedback better than those with low spatial ability. Prior knowledge can also determine the level of support a learner requires. It’s important to note that the feedback principle specifically identifies that novice learners will benefit the most from the feedback principle. As with any research study there is still much that needs to be determined. Some of the key questions still facing experts concern the appropriate feedback for expert learners and when is it appropriate to provide feedback. #2 Scheiter, K. (2014). The learner control principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 487-512). New York: Cambridge. (e.g. Chapter 21) One may assume that providing students with control of their learning would increase their chances for success. However, much research has been conducted on the learner control principle and the results are inconclusive and unimpressive. The learner control principle states that learners are able “to pace, sequence, and select information” to aid in their learning (p 489). In short, learners are provided control over how they learn, when they learn and what the learn. Researchers suggest that when learners are provided control over their learning they are more likely to take ownership of their learning and are motivated to succeed. It’s important to note that learner control is sometimes referred to as hypermedia. Hypermedia results when hypertext and multimedia are combined. There are two main types of a learner controlled environment. The first is the linear design. In the linear format learners are provided control when the hit the next or back button. The next format is a non-linear design. In the non-linear design information is presented all on one screen with hyperlinks to additional information. There are few theories that support the ideas of learner control. The cognitive flexibility theory (CFT) suggests that learning is improved when learners can access information from a variety of sources which also allows them to compare and contrast similar information (p 492). One should keep in mind though that providing an abundance of information from multiple sources may be too much information for a learner to process and thus lead to a high cognitive demand. The self-determination theory states that when learners are provided control of their learning they feel intrinsically motivated to learn. It’s also believed that by providing learners with control they will become self-regulated in their learning as well. Regardless of the principles and theories that support learner control there is not enough evidence that learner control will produce the desired results. Interestingly, however, learner control seems to be one of the few principles that provides benefits for advanced learners. Advanced learners tend to already have complex schemas and sufficient prior knowledge to engage in a learner control learning environment. They have the skills and knowledge to take responsibility for their learning and make appropriate choices. Regardless of the learner's ability level all students can benefit from instructional support when learner control is provided. Learners need support in the basic mechanics of multimedia resources as well as with help in self regulating. #3 Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2005). Role of Guidance, Reflection, and Interactivity in an Agent-Based Multimedia Game. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 117-128. Instructional designers are tasked with the responsibility of creating instruction that stimulates the learner and helps them process information according to cognitive learning models. In this selection of text the authors conducted three research studies to determine if guidance and reflection have the same effect on interactive and noninteractive learning environments. They used four instructional concepts in the game: interactivity, reflection, feedback and guidance (p 117 -118). Mayer and Moreno suggest “learners must engage in the cognitive process” and they must be able to “activate prior knowledge and organize the incoming material in a coherent structure” in order for meaningful learning to take place (p 118). They go on to propose that meaningful learning is more likely to occur if they receive guidance and are engaged in reflection or interact with the material in some way. In their research studies that focused on the ideas of guidance, reflection and interactivity. Guidance can be designed to include a variety of support for the learner, reflection allows the student to contemplate and evaluate their answers, and finally interactivity provides students the chance to interact and make choices about their instruction. Their first study revealed that students performed better when provided guidance versus no guidance but, there were no significant gains in achievement between reflection and no-reflection. Their second experiment revealed that there was no significant difference between interactivity and non-interactivity. Their final experiment revealed much of the same results as the second experiment but cautioned that reflection may be a difficult task for novice learners. As with most research studies further analysis needs to be conducted in order to ensure that the results are true for all education sentences as well as consider different variables. #4 Kalyuga, S. (2007). Enhancing Instructional Efficiency of Interactive E-learning Environments: A Cognitive Load Perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 387-399. Interactive learning environments are intended to provide learners with a hands on learning experience that allows them to be in an active participant in their own learning. These environments are designed with good intentions and incorporate numerous design principles but, unfortunately, they can also overwhelm the learner which results in cognitive overload. It’s important to note that learners have a limited capacity for knowledge to be processed and stored in short term memory. This same information is then moved to the long term memory (LTM) and attaches to existing schema or new schema is created when needed. When new information is encountered our cognitive system, specifically our LTM, decide whether the information is brand new or can be linked to previous information and then processes it accordingly. An expert and novice learner will obviously differ on how they process information due to existing or non existing schemas. Their prior knowledge determines what kind of support they will need to attend to the new information. Instructional designers need to be cognizant of the burdens they may be placing on a learner’s working memory when designing instruction. Learning occurs when one is able to process and connect information to prior information. This process occurs in the working memory and if the working memory is overloaded learning will be unable to occur. To reduce cognitive load Kalyuga suggests “eliminating spatial and temporal split of related sources of information, managing step-size and rate of introducing new elements of information, providing a direct access to the required external guidance, and avoiding diversion of cognitive resources on redundant cognitive processes” (p 391). One of the main components of an interactive learning environment is how the program responds to learner’s actions or feedback. There are varying levels of how a multimedia learning environment interacts with the learner. The lowest level is the feedback level which provides the learner with specific and predetermined feedback. The next level is a manipulation level which provides the learner with varied feedback but the feedback is not determined by the learners previous answer. The following level is an adaption level which provides individual responses based on the learner's previous response. These responses however have been predetermined. The final level is the communication level. The communication level is the most fluid level and provides real time responses to the learners actions. As discussed previously multimedia instruction may cause an overwhelming burden on a learner's cognitive capacity. It’s essential that a designer be aware of cognitive theories and principles and include ways to reduce the cognitive load. Some of the principles the author mentions are the expertise reversal effect, worked example principle, redundancy principle, learner control, feedback principle, and the split-attention effect. The challenge of an instructional designer is to determine how to design multimedia instruction that stimulates but does not overwhelm the learner. #5: Moreno R. Cognitive Load and Learning Effects of Having Students Organize Pictures and Words in Multimedia Environments: The Role of Student Interactivity and Feedback. Educational Technology Research & Development [serial online]. July 2005;53(3):35-45. Available from: Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 26, 2016. In this research study Moreno and Valdez set out to determine if presenting information in two modes (visual and auditory) and providing an opportunity for students to interact with content would produce better retention than if presented differently. To test their hypothesis they conducted a study with college students and focused on the following measures of learning: retention, transfer, mental load, and relative efficiencies. Moreno and Valdez were careful to consider numerous principles concerning the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. They took into consideration the cognitive load and dual coding theory among other things. In addition, they propose that “learning is improved when learners make, rather than take, meaning” (p 36). Moreno and Valdez conducted three research studies to test their hypotheses. After the first experiment their findings revealed that students perform better when material is presented in two modes instead of one. Interestingly, however the interactivity component yielded a negative effect. The second experiment did not yield any significant results. The final experiment indicated that students performance and retention increased when they were provided meaningful feedback. In conclusion, an instructional designer, should consider creating instruction that is dual mode and incorporate multimedia components that help learners create the appropriate mental models. #1 Mayer, R.E., & Moreno, R. (2010). Techniques that reduce extraneous cognitive load and manage intrinsic cognitive load during multimedia learning. In J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 131-152). New York: Cambridge.
In this selection of text Mayer and Moreno provide an outline for creating instruction that includes short animations. As discussed previously people learn when then are able to process and store information. Instructional designers must keep in mind that learners have a limited capacity for processing information and therefore design instruction that reduces the cognitive load. In fact Mayer and Moreno propose that there are three types of demands placed on the learner when acquiring new information. These demands are: extraneous cognitive load, intrinsic cognitive load, and germane cognitive load (p 133). When these demands are too high or too much it exceeds the learners capacity and therefore they are unable to process essential and crucial information. Therefore, instructional designers should focus on reducing the extraneous cognitive processing, manage essential processing and foster generative processing (p134-6). The authors suggest that instructional designers consider numerous cognitive principles in order to create meaningful and realistic instruction for all learners. When learners are presented with too much information cognitive overload may occur. To reduce the load Mayer and Moreno suggest considering the coherence principle (remove unnecessary information), redundancy principle (remove redundant information), signaling principle (provide signals or cues to alert the learner to important information), temporal contiguity principle (present information concurrently), and the spatial contiguity principle (text and corresponding visuals should be near each other on the screen). In addition, a designer should strive to manage intrinsic cognitive load for learners. To do this, the authors suggest that a designer consider the segmenting principle (provide the information in chunks), pretraining principle (ensure learners have prior knowledge), and the modality principle (use animation and narration). In summary, the authors highly suggest that an instructional designer be cognizant and knowledgeable of the principles listed above and the necessity to reduce cognitive load to ensure learners can process all necessary information. As with many research studies however, further research is still required. It is interesting to note that much of the previous research conducted has been with college students in atypical settings. Much research needs to be conducted in a more traditional and realistic setting. # 2 van Merriënboer, J. J., & Kester, L. (2014). The four-component instructional design model: Multimedia principles in environments for complex learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 104-148). New York: Cambridge. Although it may have its limitations the four-component instructional design (4C/ID) model helps designers determine which principles are suitable for different aspects of a learning environment. The model may not be revolutionary in terms of cognitive theory but it does provide a summary of various principles and models. The 4C/ID model proposes that complex learning is comprised of four components. These four components are: learning tasks, supportive information, procedural information and part-task practice (p 105-6). It is encouraged that learning tasks take place in an authentic environment and provide the opportunity for the learner to engage in authentic and meaningful tasks. The sequencing principle, physical-fidelity principle, training-wheels principle, variability principle, collaboration principle, and completion-strategy principle are multimedia principles that should be considered when designing instruction. Each of these principles provides the learner with the opportunity to interact in multimedia environments that mimic real life. The next component is supportive information. Many educators typically refer to supportive information as the “theory” and believe it consists of three parts. The first part is the domain models which determine the who?, what?, and how? The second part is the systematic approaches to problem solving and they consider the necessary steps in problem solving. The final part is feedback. Feedback provides an opportunity for the teacher to assess the students and for students to self reflect as well. The prior-knowledge principle, multimedia principle, dynamic visualizations principle, redundancy principle, coherence principle, self-explanation principle, and self-pacing principle all allow learners to access prior knowledge and connect existing schemas with new information. These principles allow learners to learn using social media, hypermedia and microworlds. The third component is procedural information which is best presented in small chunks and is typically the information learners need to perform a specific task. Procedural information is formatted so that the most novice of learners can understand. It also allows the opportunity for feedback and corrective information. In the 4C/ID model the modality principle, temporal split-attention principle, spatial split-attention principle, signaling principle, and segmentation principle all support the notions of procedural information. In these principles procedural information is presented through mobile apps, augmented reality environments, online help systems and pedagogical agents (p127). The final component is part-task practice. Learning is typically designed to include a time for practice and examples. However, when learning does not provide an opportunity to practice or does not provide enough opportunities to practice part-task practice is required. This provides the learner with the opportunity to drill and practice on specific elements of the learning. In addition, learners are then provided with feedback which can help them self assess and ensure they are properly prepared for the next learning experience. The component-fluency principle allows learners the opportunity for additional practice when needed It’s important to note that there is not a one size fits all for all learners and therefore it may be appropriate to incorporate learner control into the instructional design. The teacher or learner may have control of the learning depending on the needs of the student or the ability of the learner to self control. In the case of multimedia learning the learning is typically controlled by the computer program or software. The program is able to decide based on previous results the best path for each learner to follow. The individualization principle, second-order-scaffolding principle and the development portfolio principle allow learners and educators the opportunity to control the best course of instruction for each student. As mentioned previously the 4C/ID model may not provide any new information in terms of cognitive theory and principles but it does provide an excellent framework for an instructional designer to consider when creating multimedia instruction. #3 Low, R., & Sweller, J. (2014). The modality principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 227-246). New York: Cambridge. Cognitive load theory suggests that an individual has a greater chance of learning when instruction is designed to reduce the cognitive load. A learner has limited space to store knowledge and information in their working memory so it’s important that an instructional designer create instruction with this in mind. One way to do this is to consider the modality effect or modality principle. Researchers believe that the working memory processes information through a visual and auditory processor. In an attempt to increase the chance that a learner processes and stores essential information it should be presented in two modes. Specifically, they suggest that visual information should be accompanied by narrated text. Research has been conducted that supports the idea that learning is increased when information is presented concurrently in two modes as opposed to only one. It’s important to note that the modality effect and the split-attention effect are based on similar ideas and notions. The split-attention effect requires a learner to access information from different formats or modes. In the split-attention and modality effect all information presented is essential and necessary. However, when the information presented is not essential for understanding it is considered redundant and is referred to as the redundancy principle. The redundancy principle can also be likened to the expertise-reversal principle. The expertise-reversal principle occurs when the an expert learner is provided with unnecessary information or fluff. The expert learner has a difficult time wading through the fluff and therefore misses key and essential new information. Interestingly enough some researchers believe that the modality principle is only realistic if the narrative is short and direct. Learners will have a difficult time processing long chunks of spoken text. This leads to the idea that written text is sometimes preferred because learners can return to the text as many times as needed but they may not be able to return to the spoken text which results in lost knowledge. #4 Renkl, A. (2014). The worked examples principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 391-412). New York: Cambridge. Worked examples provide learners the opportunity to see a problem, the solution, and often the steps that were required to reach the solution. Research has revealed that learners typically demonstrate an increase in retention when they are provided with worked examples (p 392). When learning is presented in the format of a worked example it usually contains three parts. Learners are presented with a theory or idea, multiple worked examples, and the the chance to apply what they have learned. Research studies have proven that worked examples provide learners a chance to gain a deep understanding of a concept in the least amount of time. Problem solving often requires a great deal of cognitive space. Worked examples allow learners to free up some of the cognitive space and focus on the bigger idea. In addition, when imploring worked examples in multimedia instruction learners are often asked and required to self explain. This skill is often lost on students but the multimedia instruction works it into the design in a way that students may not even realize they are doing it. If an instructional designer incorporates the worked example principle in their instruction they must be sure to consider other ideas of cognitive theory. Specifically, a designer should be careful not to overwhelm the learning with too much information which could lead to extraneous cognitive load. One should also be sure to avoid the split-attention effect when designing multimedia instruction with worked examples. Finally, one should should carefully integrate the content and provide cues when necessary and appropriate. The authors suggest that worked examples are best used when learners are first introduced to the new material. They state that as the learner becomes more familiar with the topic that the need for worked examples dwindles. In this case, the information may need to be scaffolded in order to consider the expertise or redundancy principle. A designer should also consider the idea that some learners may attempt to “game the system.” “Gaming the system” occurs when learners are able to manipulate multimedia learning to achieve the solution without actually learning the material. Some of the instructional principles that are directly related to worked examples are: self-explanation and comparison principle, imagery principle, easy-mapping principle, focus-on-learning domain principle, instructions-for-use-principle, fading principle, example-set principle, studying errors principle, and meaningful building blocks principle. Overall, research on the worked example principle has produced positive results but many teachers report that it is difficult and time consuming to consistently employ the worked example principle. More research should be conducted to determine the best way to consistently and effectively use worked examples in a traditional classroom setting. #5 Hesser, T. L., & Gregory, J. L. (2015). Exploring the Use of Faded Worked Examples as a Problem Solving Approach for Underprepared Students. Higher Education Studies, 5(6), 36-46. Unfortunately, students often begin college unprepared and unaware of how to succeed. They have been promoted and inflated to believe that they are ready and able to take on the high demands of a university. However, only a quarter of the students that took the ACT between 2008 through 2012 were identified as ready for college (p36). There are many ways to help students gain the skills they need to succeed but the focus of this research study is to determine the effectiveness of worked examples and faded worked examples. A worked example provides the learner with a problem and a solution. Often, it also includes the steps necessary to achieve that solution. According to cognitive load theory worked examples provides learners with an opportunity to reduce the cognitive load and store the necessary and vital information. Worked examples also provide learners with repetitive information which leads to automation. Automation is considered a vital component in learning according to cognitive load theory. In most cases worked examples are used when a learner is first introduced to a new idea. The worked examples are used until the learner no longer needs them to succeed. However, this all or none approach may not be best for all students, especially those who are unprepared learners. In an effort to still provide students with support the faded worked example approach can be used. This approach scaffolds learning for students and over time reduces the number of supports used. The study conducted by Hesser and Gregory revealed that most students reported that faded worked examples improved their overall grade and performance in the class. Test results also revealed that students identified as underprepared scored better than their peers on the final exam. Notably, they outperformed their peers on the open ended questions when multiple steps were needed to solve the equation. Overall students revealed that faded worked examples helped them better understand the material and provided them with a step by step look at how to solve the problems. They also reported that by slowly removing steps they were able to focus on only one component at a time which made it easier to recall information (p43). In conclusion, the worked example approach or the faded worked example approach should be considered when designing instruction. They provide students with the necessary supports to be successful in an out of the classroom. #1 Kalyuga, S. (2014) The expertise reversal principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 576-597). New York: Cambridge.
This selection of text discusses the expertise reversal principle in multimedia learning. As a learner’s knowledge of a specific topic or concept increases the instructional design should change as well. Most research about design studies has focused on novice learners. This chapter focuses on how to best design instruction for advanced learners. The expertise reversal principle was initially considered a part of the redundancy principle. That is as learners became more advanced in a topic the less information they needed to be successful. In fact, redundant information could also be detrimental to their learning. Working memory has a limited capacity and the redundant information was crowding the space. Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the effects multimedia learning has on advanced learning. In most cases the research revealed that multimedia learning hinders the learning of advanced learners. In a few cases the multimedia effect did not hinder nor further learning for advanced learners. Overall, the results indicated that advanced learners perform better when they only have one mode of information to focus on. When their attention is split between more than one mode of information they perform poorly. It’s important to note that in all of these studies the advanced learners possessed the necessary schemas or prior knowledge to call upon when learning new information. Keep in mind that the expertise reversal principle only applies to learning with high levels of element interactivity. In order for the principle to come in to effect there must be a high intrinsic cognitive load. When designing instruction it is important to consider the knowledge level of your audience. It’s essential to design instruction that meets the needs of all students in a reasonable and feasible manner. One of the most important components is determining prior knowledge. Researchers believe that advanced learners suffer when instruction is designed to accommodate the needs of a novice learner. The advanced learners is forced to wade through the information to determine what is important which may cause a cognitive overload. A general rule of thumb is to “gradually replace high-structured instructional procedures and formats with low-structured instructions as knowledge levels increase (p 590). The process is known as scaffolding. As with many studies, further research still needs to be conducted to determine the best and most efficient way to determine the knowledge level of a student. #2 Wiley, J., Sanchez, C. A., & Jaeger, A. J. (2014). The individual differences in working memory capacity principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 598-619). New York: Cambridge. The text defines multimedia comprehension as “learning from a combination of words and images” (p 598). As has been previously discussed, the working memory has a limited capacity to store and then process information. This limited capacity has been used to show arguments for and against multimedia learning. Furthermore the working memory processes information through one of three channels: the visuospatial sketchpad, the phonological loop, and the central executive. The goal of many instructional designers has been to determine how to design instruction that uses each of these modes to process the most information. The key is to provide learners with just the right amount of information so that they do not experience cognitive overload. One way to determine the abilities of one’s working memory is to assess one’s working memory capacity (WMC). WMC is defined as “the ability to use the working memory system effectively and efficiently” (p 615). Each learner has their own unique WMC which should be considered by a designer when creating instruction. Multimedia learning requires learners to attend to numerous channels of information at one time and the learner’s WMC will determine just how much they can attend to. Students with high WMC can easily sift through information to determine what is important. They can easily attend to the important information and look past the fluff. This was realized during a research study when learners were able to ignore the seductive details. Learners with high WMC also tend to be able to better see the bigger picture and how new information connects to old. Some ways to address a learner’s individual differences is to allow them to control the pace of the instruction. By providing them the ability to segment instruction allows them the ability to control how much information they receive at one time. A learner’s WMC is also believed to help them make connections between previously learned information. A designer should be cautious though as to not over simplify the instruction. As we have read previously oversimplifying can have negative effects as well. It’s believed that WMC can be increased over time and with practice. Expanding the WMC can lead to increased ability in other cognitive areas. Of course, the study of WMC is new and still needs to be investigated further but the initial findings are encouraging and extremely beneficial for an instructional designer. #3 Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 10–119. Learning styles is a word often heard in various education settings. Educators have been told that they should alter instruction to meet the needs of varying learning styles so that all students have an opportunity to experience success. However, this text suggests that educators have been misled. Learning styles refer to the idea, “that individuals differ in regard to what mode of instruction or study is most effective for them.” Most learning style surveys or assessments categorize people into groups. That is, based on their responses they are placed in a group which is defined to include certain characteristics or traits. The Myers Brigg test has been used to help individuals make occupational decisions. The idea that people should be grouped together based on their test results has not been widely supported so why then does the idea of learning styles receive so much attention. The answer is simple, parents and students want to feel that they are receiving an education that is tailored to their specific needs and if instruction is not tailored it can be blamed for any shortcomings of the student. The idea of learning styles has been observed under various studies and the results appeared to be rather unexpected. First, it’s important to make a distinction between existence of study preferences and learning-style hypothesis. The existence of study preferences suggests that learners volunteer their own preferences and the learning-style hypothesis suggests that if learners receive instruction based on their learning style then they will experience increased success. It’s important to note that the learning style hypothesis also suggests that if one does not receive instruction based on their learning style they will perform poorly. The learning-style hypothesis is also sometimes referred to as the meshing hypothesis. The meshing hypothesis claims that an instructional presentation should mesh with a learner’s learning style. That is if they are an auditory learner than the instruction should be spoken. The authors believe that research on the learning-style hypothesis is only valid if the the learning style matches the instructional method. They analyzed numerous studies and found that none of them supported the notions of the learning-style hypothesis. Their research did not support the notion that learning style is reliant on teaching method. Regardless of a learner’s learning style they performed as expected no matter what method was used. One should note that there is some research that suggests that more advanced students perform better with less structure and novice learners require increased structure. In summary, everyone has the ability to learn and it is true that individuals learn differently but there is little research to support the learning-style hypothesis. #4 Plass, J.L. & Kalyuga, S., & Leutner, D. (2010). Individual differences and cognitive load theory. In J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 65-87). New York: Cambridge. This text discusses the role that individual learning differences play in Cognitive Load Theory. Very little research has been conducted on this topic and therefore the results are limited. It goes without saying that a great deal of future research is required to better understand the role learning styles play in cognitive load theory. In this text, learning differences include individual preferences, different presentations, modalities, environmental conditions, cognitive styles, cognitive abilities and intelligence (p65). The authors have divided differences in learning into three categories: information gathering, information processing and regulation of processing. The idea of information gathering which includes learning styles, preferences and personality types have no measurable distinctions on the outcomes of learning. For this reason the remainder of the text was devoted to an in depth look of information processing and regulation of processing. Information processing relies heavily on prior knowledge. The authors looked at a variety of studies and determined that the expertise reversal effect plays a significant role in the ability of a learner to process and manage information. More experienced or expert learners don’t necessary have a larger working memory capacity but they have enough prior knowledge that they can free up space in their working memory to focus and process new information. The authors went on to explain that as a learner becomes more familiar with a topic their learning needs change. It’s important to determine a learner’s cognitive level and thus design instruction appropriately. When designing instruction for advanced learners, less is often more. Meaning that advanced learners don’t require as much structure or explanation and experience increased success when they can focus solely on the new topic. Spatial abilities refer to a learner’s ability to mentally rotate images, imagine how images might look from a different perspective and visualization (p 72). Again the authors looked at various research studies and determined that learners with a high spatial ability required less structure and guidance when interpreting information but those with low spatial ability required an increased amount of guidance and support to interpret and process information. Finally, the authors looked at self-regulating skills. Self-regulating refers to the process of learners regulating their learning. Once again, prior knowledge plays a role in a learner’s ability to self regulate. A learner with increased prior knowledge is better able to self regulate when presented with new information. These learners are able to attach the new information to prior schemas which allows them to easily process and store the information. It is suggested that when learners are presented with hypermedia technology that they be able to self-regulate through scaffolding. Meaning that if they need extra help or support they can receive it by clicking a link but if they don’t need the extra support they can navigate through the program. Overall, it was determined that one of the keys to designing appropriate instruction is determining a learner’s academic level prior to instruction. This will allow a designer to create instruction specifically for an individual’s needs. As mentioned at the beginning, the research is very limited and much more still needs to be done to determine the validity and reliability of the results discussed. #5 Parra, B. (2016). Learning strategies and styles as a basis for building personal learning environments. International Journal Of Educational Technology In Higher Education, 13(1), 1-11. doi:10.1186/s41239-016-0008-z This text describes the notion of personal learning environments (PLEs). A PLE provides students the opportunity to take control of their own learning. It’s believed that there are two approaches to a PLE; technological and pedagogical. The pedagogical approach is a change in methodology where the technological approach refers to a software system (p 1-2). The basic idea of PLE’s is that that the learner is control. They determine the resources, the format, and with whom they learn. It is important that instructional leaders help students make the most of their PLE and e-learning experience. The authors go on to argue that one of the keys to a successful PLE is helping students determine how they learn. They believe that with this knowledge learners will be able to create a PLE that optimizes their ability to learn. In order to better understand the role of learning style in PLE’s the authors conducted a research study. The participants were comprised of 54 college students studying various subject matters. The study provided interesting insight into learning styles and PLE’s. The authors concluded that most learners required some sort of structure and guidance. When left to their own accord they struggled to determine where to start or what resources to use. They also note that most students who participated were able to self-regulate and self-assess with ease. Above all they observed that each student has their own learning style and constructs knowledge differently. It’s important for an instructional designer to consider the differences amongst students and design instruction that meets the needs of each one. #1 Mayer, R. E. (2014) Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 1-26). New York: Cambridge.
(e.g. Chapter 1) In this selection of text Mayer introduces his reader to multimedia learning and summarizes the key components of, The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Mayer states that, “people learn more deeply from words and pictures that from words alone” (p1). When discussing multimedia there are three key terms to consider: multimedia, multimedia learning and multimedia instruction. Multimedia refers to presenting words and pictures, multimedia learning is how individuals interpret the words and pictures, and multimedia instruction refers to designing instruction that allows individuals to create mental representations. Multimedia learning allows the learner to learn in the way that the human mind was intended to work. It allows information to be received in two modes thus increasing the opportunity for one to process information. It’s also believed that words and pictures complement each other thus providing an opportunity for learning to be enhanced. Mayer also discusses the differences between the learner centered approach and the technology centered approach. The learner centered approach focuses on how we can use technology to improve learning where the technology centered approach focuses on the cutting edge technology itself. When designing instruction it is important for a designer to consider their beliefs in education. There are three views on multimedia learning: multimedia learning as response strengthening, multimedia learning as information acquisition, and multimedia learning as knowledge construction. The response strengthening metaphor believes that learning occurs as a connection between stimulus and response increases or decreases. Learners receive a reward or punishment based on the connections they make. The information acquisition metaphor views information as input. That is learning occurs when information is entered in the brain. The knowledge construction metaphor believes that the learner is an active participant in their learning. The learner must interpret and connect information to prior knowledge in order for it to be learned. It’s also important for a designer to ensure that the learner understands the information presented and not merely remembers it. Remembering allows the learner to reproduce the information whereas understanding allows the learner to engage in the new information and interact with it. Finally, a designer should create instruction that allows learners to be actively engaged. Active learning consists of two forms; behavioral activity and cognitive activity. Behavioral activity is when the learner is physically engaged somehow in the content. Cognitive activity is when the learner is forced to make sense of the information presented to them. In conclusion, there is much for a designer to consider when creating relevant and engaging instruction. #2 Mayer, R. E. (2014) Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 43-71). New York: Cambridge. (e.g. Chapter 3) In this chapter Mayer discusses the idea that learners are more likely to learn when instruction is designed according to how the mind works. The notion of multimedia learning is relatively new and has changed much over the last twenty five years. With that said, it has also remained the same. Many of the theories and principles that multimedia learning is based upon have remained true since researchers first started studying it. This chapter serves to summarize the key elements to consider when designing multimedia instruction. A multimedia instructional message is information presented through words and pictures to encourage learning. It’s important to consider that the information must be received in more than one mode but it does not necessarily have to be received from some form of technology as some may think from the word, “multimedia.” There are three assumptions that form the basis for multimedia communication: dual-channel, limited capacity and active processing. The dual-channel assumption states that information is processed through two channels. One channel processes auditory and verbal information while the other channel processes visual and spatial information. The limited-capacity assumption assumes that we have a limited capacity for storing information. The active processing assumption states that learners must be actively engaged in the learning process. That is they must connect information and create a mental image of that information. As discussed thoroughly in previous selections learners possess three memory stores. These stores determine how and which information is processed and stored. These stores are sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. When information is processed it is believed that learning engages in one of five processes. These processes allow the learner to select, organize and combine images and words. These processes are essential if meaningful learning is to occur. The text goes on to also summarize the five forms in which knowledge can be represented and where in the cognitive process this occurs. In essence information follows a specific path to reach the long term memory. Only when information reaches the long term memory is it truly learned. It is essential that an instructional designer consider all that has been mentioned previously when designing instruction but they also must consider the demands placed on a learner’s capacity. Some of the processes to consider are extraneous processing, essential processing, and generative processing. These processes lead to the notions of extraneous overload, essential overload and generative underutilization. Due to the limited amount of space a learner has to process information considering each of these processes will ensure a successful learning design. In summary, an instructional designer is tasked to create a learning environment that considers all the intricacies of how the mind works and processes information. If one fails to do that then they will fail their learners. #3 Schnotz, W. (2014) Integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 72-103). New York: Cambridge. (e.g. Chapter 4) As previously discussed multimedia learning occurs in different formats. Text can be presented in verbal or written format and visuals can be presented as static images or animations. Regardless of what format the information is presented it’s important to consider the appropriate theories and methods to use when combining pictures and text. Information is presented in two basic forms; descriptions and depictions. The most common form of descriptions in text whereas words can also represent certain symbols. For example, the word tree represents the symbol of a tree. Depictive representations are icons. That is, instead of seeing the word tree you would see a picture of a tree. This notion of presenting information also applies to mental representations. As one makes these mental representations the information travels through the memory subsystems. These subsystems are the sensory memory, working memory and long-term memory. The ideas of each of these memory systems have been discussed at length previously. The research, theories and methods described previously have led to the notion of the integrated model of text and picture comprehension (ITPC model). The ITPC model synthesizes and combines previous research to create a single model for comprehension. This model includes the comprehension of spoken text, written text, visual pictures and auditory pictures. The ITPC model provides a visual picture of just how information is processed through different modes and components of memory. There is much data to prove that combining visuals and text improves a learner’s comprehension but as with any study there are some areas of concern. In order for a student to adequately process and retain information a designer must consider a learner’s prior knowledge and academic level. The designer must also consider the redundancy effect, the degree of coherence, contiguity, modality and sequencing. These ideas have also been discussed previously. The ITPC models provides a comprehensive look of how to design instruction for learners but, further research is still needed. The ITPC model does not allow for differentiation or how students will omit extraneous material. #4 Mayer, R.E., & Anderson, B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An Experimental Test of a Dual-coding Hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 484-490. As an instructional designer one should truly understand how words and pictures help people learn and acquire new information. It’s important for a designer to consider if the use of animation will increase a learner’s understanding of a topic or will it merely be a pretty add on. Much research has been conducted on the use of words and pictures in instruction. This research has determined that students experience an increased success and understanding when words and pictures are presented simultaneously. As technology continues to advance it is likely that more and more animations will appear in instructional resources and designs but very little research has been conducted to determine the impact of these animations. In an effort to better understand the effect animations have on instruction the authors tested three hypotheses. They tested the single-code hypothesis, separate dual-code hypothesis and the integrated dual-code hypothesis. The single-code hypothesis believes that regardless of how information is presented (words or pictures) it will be encoded the same way. The separate dual-code hypothesis suggests that learners are more likely to store information if words and pictures are both encoded separately. Finally, the integrated dual-code hypothesis states that learners should encode information separately and learn to make connections between the both. The authors then went on to conduct research studies to test each hypothesis. Each study was conducted using similar methods and materials. The results were consistent of previous studies surrounding words and static pictures in that they proved that using words and animations increased the likelihood for success. The new study also determined that the results were consistent even with the new dependent variable of problem-solving. As with any study though further research needs to be conducted because on the surface it doesn’t appear that there is a significant difference between using static pictures and using animations. #5 Mayer, Richard E., and Roxana Moreno. "Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning." Educational Psychologist 38.1 (2003): 43-52. Print. When designing instruction an instructional designer must ensure that learning will be meaningful and possible. They must be sure the learner has the capacity to process the information presented as well as apply what they learn to future events. In this article Mayer and Moreno synthesize much of the information in regards to cognitive processing discussed previously and highlight nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Cognitive overload occurs when “the learner’s intended cognitive processing exceeds the learner’s available cognitive capacity” (Mayer and Moreno 1). Before discussing how to reduce the cognitive load one should understand the three hypotheses surrounding how the human mind works. Researchers believe that learners have two channels for processing information. One channel processes verbal information and the other processes visual information. In addition, there is a finite amount of information a learner can process at one time and furthermore, research suggests that it takes a significant amount of cognitive processing in each of the channels for learning to occur. Given these three assumptions it is essential that an instructional designer consider ways to reduce the cognitive load. When a learner is presented with a visual image and text their visual channel is overloaded. They are unable to adequately process all the information presented as their attention is split from the text and picture. To reduce this strain an instructional designer can present the words as narration. This allows the learner to process the picture through the visual channel and the words through the auditory channel. The notion of segmenting and pretraining should be considered when both channels are overloaded. That is the learner is trying to process essential information on both channels. The segmenting principle suggests that the designer chunk the information and the pretraining principle suggests that the designer provide learners with essential information prior to the instruction. Another form of overloading occurs when the learner is overloaded with essential and extraneous information. The learner struggles to discern what is important and what isn’t. To reduce the cognitive load a designer should consider weeding and signaling. Weeding requires that the designer remove the fluff from the instruction and provide the learner with only pertinent information. If the fluff cannot be removed from the material a designer should consider cueing or signaling the learner to relevant information. This means providing the learner with a way to select and then organize necessary information. When information is presented in a confusing way a designer should consider streamlining the instruction and aligning the words and pictures so the learner can attend to all information simultaneously and effortlessly. Finally, when a learner is forced to hold information in their working memory while attending to additional information they become overwhelmed. Two ways to reduce the overload is to synchronize information and individualize. Synchronizing suggests that a designer presents animation and narration at the same time and individualizing suggests that you design instruction for the individual learner. In summary, an instructional designer must be deliberate and intentional when designing instruction in order to avoid cognitive overload. #1 Pass, F. & Sweller, J. (2014) Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 27-42). New York: Cambridge.
(e.g. Chapter 2) In this selection the authors elaborate on the relationship between long-term and working memory. They suggest that in order for an instructional designer to create meaningful instruction they must truly understand the long-term memory, working memory and relationship between them. Before understanding each of these components one must first understand the purposes and differences between biologically primary and secondary knowledge. Biologically primary knowledge is anything that comes naturally to us and we have acquired over the years. An example is listening and speaking. Biologically secondary knowledge must be taught and is purposely acquired. An example of biologically secondary knowledge is reading and writing. Typically, one needs both components to acquire new knowledge. Cognitive load theory concerns the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge and is comprised of five principles. These principles include the information store principle, the borrowing and reorganizing principle, the randomness and genesis principle, the narrow limits of change principle, and the environmental organizing and linking principle. The information store principle accounts for the process of storing information in the long term memory. As new information is stored the long term memory is altered and thus learning occurs. The borrowing and reorganizing principles allows for learning from others, “borrowing” their knowledge and then storing it in an organized fashion. When a student is presented with a new task or experience they often rely on their previous knowledge. They then adapt their prior knowledge and apply it to the present situation. This process is the randomness and genesis principle. The narrow limits of change principle refers to the small amount of information that can be stored in the working memory. Finally, the relationship between long term memory and working memory is described in the environment organizing and linking principle. It’s important to note that working memory has limits on the amount of sensory information it can store but these same limits don’t apply to the amount of stored information. At the end of the text the authors describe the implications cognitive load theory have on instructional design. The amount of information or cognitive load one can store is an essential component to any instruction. There are three categories of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous and germane. Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the thought that components of a task must not be altered and must be processed in the same manner they were learned. Extraneous cognitive load refers to the notion that learners will learn by doing and applying problem solving skills. Germane cognitive load is a combination of intrinsic and extraneous load. It reduces the amount of extraneous tasks and makes room for additional intrinsic tasks. #2 - Ayres, P & Sweller, J. (2014) The split-attention principle in multimedia Learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.),The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 206-226). New York: Cambridge. (e.g. Chapter 8) In an attempt to reduce the cognitive load it is essential that instructional designers create a streamlined product that allows the learner to focus their attention. A learner’s attention is split when they are forced to focus on more than one source of information at a time. This notion is referred to as split attention. Extensive research has been conducted which confirms that learners perform better on given tasks when they are able to focus their attention. Split attention effect occurs when text is presented separately from a visual. Text may be presented separately within the same document of may be presented from two different sources. It’s important to note that in the split attention effect these two pieces of information could not be understood by itself and therefore must be accompanied by the other piece. In the split attention effect learners spend much time making sense of what their looking at and not actually processing the information which results in an increased extraneous load and reduces the amount of space available in the working memory. In order for a learner to process the most information researchers believe that it is important for text and visuals to be presented contiguously or right next to each other as opposed to on separate pages. This notion led to the spatial contiguity principle which implies that visual information should be presented together as opposed to apart. Mayer also explored the temporal contiguity principle which moves to include spoken text as part of the split attention effect. Studies concluded that students were able to process more information when visuals were accompanied by spoken text. In addition to sheer formatting there are other ways to focus a learner’s attention in a multimedia format. These ideas include directing a learner’s attention to certain key terms through coloring or highlighting and the inclusion of highlighting to streamline the initial presentation and yet still provide an opportunity for further investigation. At the end of the chapter the authors provide strategies for helping learners focus their attention when an instructional designer cannot. Learners will encounter many instructional materials throughout their education that are presented in split-attention formats. Two suggestions for narrowing their attention is for learners to restructure the material. That is reformat the way material is presented to reduce the split attention effect. Another strategy is to learn how to annotate and create their own materials. This will allow a learner to present the information in a manner that suits them. As with other notions that support the cognitive load theory, prior knowledge and the complexity of the new knowledge play a role in determining the split attention effect. It’s important to consider these before determining if split attention effect will even occur. #3 Kalyuga, S. & Sweller, J. (2014) The redundancy principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.),The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 247-262). New York: Cambridge. (e.g. Chapter 10) One may consider the redundancy principle to be just the opposite of the split-attention principle. The redundancy principle suggests redundant information makes it difficult for learners to process information. It is important to note that redundancy principle only exists when it is necessary to provide multiple sources of information at the same time in order for a learner to properly comprehend the information. In other words the two sources of information can be presented separately and understood. The working memory has a limited amount of space to process new information and when redundant information is presented the available space is diminished unnecessarily. The redundancy effect can occur in numerous formats. Some of the forms include when a picture and text are presented simultaneously but each source of information can be presented on its own. Also, in the case of the redundancy of actual equipment, the actual equipment is not necessary to understand the concept. For example, if a car manual showed a diagram of how to add washer fluid, it may not be necessary to have the car in front of you to practice filling the fluid. The last example is written/spoken text redundancy. At times when students are asked to read and listen to a selection of text it is difficult to focus and process both sources of information. It’s also important to note that for beginning language students their ability to read and listen to the foreign language often improves at varying rates which makes it extremely difficult for them to process spoken and written text at the same time. As with other principles associated with cognitive load it’s important to consider prior knowledge when examining the redundancy principle. Novice learners with limited prior knowledge may need multiple sources of information in order to effectively process and store information. However, advanced learners who already possess prior knowledge may have a hard time focusing their attention when redundant information is presented. Unfortunately, for instructional designers there is no cookie cutter answer as to when to apply the split-attention effect or the redundant effect. As always it is important to know your learners and assess their prior knowledge. This will allow you to determine what they need to be successful with the given material. #4 Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295-312. In order for one to learn they must be able to store information in their long-term memory. Schema acquisition and the transfer of knowledge from controlled to automatic processing are two critical components of learning. In broad terms schema is how information is organized based on the current task. The more complex the task the more levels of schema that will exist. When new information is presented it is existing schema that determines how it is process and what to do with it once it is processed. As individuals learn and acquire new information schemas change and often consolidate. When acquiring this new information it is determined to occur in either a controlled or automatic manner. Automatic processing occurs subconsciously whereas controlled processing requires one to take an active role in the learning process. Often a new skill starts out as a controlled process but gradually over time shifts to a controlled process. As mentioned in previous texts the capacity of working memory is quite limited. Schema acquisition and automated processing attempt to reduce the strain on working memory through chunking and bypassing the working memory altogether. Much research has been done to determine just how to facilitate successful acquisition of knowledge. One strategy suggests presenting students with worked out examples instead of requiring them to piece together different pieces of existing schema to determine a solution. In other words when teaching a new math concept provide students with a worked out example instead of asking them to recall and combining knowledge to solve the given problem. This process helps reduce the extraneous cognitive load thus making more room in the working memory. In addition, the text references the split-attention effect and the redundancy effect as other ways to reduce cognitive load. Finally, the text suggests that an instructional designer consider the complexity of the information. First one must understand that an element is, “any information that needs to be learned” (p305). If the task has a low level of element interactivity than they can be learned separately without knowledge of other elements. When a task has a high level of element interactivity it cannot be learned without considering the connecting elements at the same time. A task with high level of element interactivity will increase the cognitive load and reduce the space in the working memory. Furthermore, each individual learner creates their own unique elements based on their prior knowledge which is essential for an instructional designer to consider when creating instruction. Note that, an instructional designer cannot control an individual’s intrinsic cognitive load which is determined by element interactivity. All of these ideas and notions described above are important for any instructional designer to consider when creating meaningful instruction. #5 Yekta R. Digital media within digital modes: The study of the effects of multimodal input of subtitled video on the learner's ability to manage split attention and enhance comprehension. International Journal Of Language Studies [serial online]. April 2010;4(2):79. Available from: Supplemental Index, Ipswich, MA. Accessed February 19, 2016. The author of the text set out to determine if the split attention effect truly has a negative effect on knowledge acquisition. In the first part of the text he summarizes much of the research and theories already discussed in this course. To name a few he references the split-attention effect, the redundancy effect, the dual coding theory, and the multimedia theory. He points out that in some cases these same theories contradict each other. The dual processing theory suggests that students learn better with redundant information but the redundancy effect suggests just the opposite. He also notes the importance of the sequence in which information is presented. According to some of the research learners have the best chance for processing information when information is presented in spoken text and visually. The author suggests that this notion would therefore mean that a learner can process information in more than one format at the same time. So, is it multimedia or multi modality that increases cognitive load and in return decreases the opportunity to acquire new knowledge. In attempt to determine which method is best the author conducted two experiments. The experiments revealed much of what had already been determined. Students were able to better process and retain information when presented with visuals and spoken text. In addition, the studies which focused primarily on learning a second language revealed that an engaging, animated and authentic content produced better results than one that was dull and boring. Finally, the study revealed that although one may consider the redundancy principle to be in effect during the experiment the learners were not overwhelmed or taxed cognitively when information was presented in multiple formats. Driscoll, M. (2005). Meaningful learning and schema theory. Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 111-152). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
(e.g. Chapter 4) In this chapter Driscoll explores Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory as well as the notion of schema. Ausubel believed that learning occurs when one takes an active role in the process to interpret information. In terms of education he defined two types of learning: reception and discovery. Discovery learning encourages students to “explore” the content in order to gain knowledge. In reception learning the information is given to the student in its final form. They simply take the information, process it and store it appropriately. Ausubel also pointed out the difference between rote and meaningful learning. In rote information students simply memorize information whereas with meaningful information student’s make a connection to the information due to prior knowledge or experiences. Ausubel believed that the cognitive structure is composed of anchoring ideas. These anchoring ideas are what new information latches on to when they are being processed. Ausubel also proposed the assimilation theory. This theory states that this new information can be either subordinate (below), superordinate (above), coordinate (equal) or combinatorial with the anchoring ideas. To further clarify combinatorial learning states that the learner has some prior knowledge of a concept but not in the appropriate context. An important step in the cognitive process is retention. Ausubel believed that if one did not retain information from subordinate learning the effect would be minimal but if one did not retain information from one of the other types of learning the effect could be severe. The text suggests that the most important factor influencing learning is a learner’s prior knowledge. In order to process information one must have an organized cognitive structure. Age and cultural differences can also affect one’s ability to process information. Next, the text takes a look at schema theory. Schema theory and meaningful learning theory have much in common but they also have many differences. Most cognitive theorists support schema theory more so than the meaningful learning theory. Schema refers to the organizing of material based on prior knowledge. Within a schema are slots or places for new information to link up with. Each group of information is referred to as schemata. These schemas allow us to interpret incoming information. Often schemata are referred to as mental models. These mental models not only include schemata but the experiences and perceptions one possesses that may aid the schemata. Schemata allow one to comprehend text, understand events, and solve problems. Schemata obviously plays a significant role in learning. Accretion, tuning and restructuring are the processes that result in either new schemata or changes in old schemata. In both schemata and meaningful learning theory one must activate prior knowledge in order to effectively process information. One way to do this is by using advance organizers. An advanced organizer allows one to easily recall prior information before being introduced to the new information. It’s also important to ensure information is relevant and meaningful to the learner. At the end of the chapter Driscoll discusses the role of comparative organizers, elaboration, conceptual models and pedagogical models. Each of these notions should be developed and implemented with the learner in mind in order to best prepare them for success. Driscoll presented the reader with essential information for any instructional designer. Regardless of one’s own personal beliefs or attitudes towards knowledge acquisition it is essential to recognize that all students learn differently and possess different sets of prior knowledge and cultural experiences. It’s because of this that educators must learn to differentiate instruction to meet the needs of all students. Driscoll, M. (2005). Situated Cognition. Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 153-184). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. (e.g. Chapter 5) In Chapter 5 Driscoll explores the idea of situated cognition. Many believe that situated cognition is a rather new idea which is still being developed but it has proven to have some positive benefits in the world of education. Situated Cognition proposes that people learn based on their environment, social experiences and social interactions. In others terms people learn from doing and their sum of knowledge is the result of everything they have done. Furthermore the sum of one’s knowledge changes based on the communities in which they participate in. Wenger believed that there are three essential facets in a community of practice. He states that people must be mutually engaged, accountable to each other, and share a common language. He went on to add that people are usually engaged in a community for themselves, for the community, or for a bigger organization. These communities are ever changing based on the people involved and the actions that they take towards each other and the world. People are often engaged in multiple communities at once and may take on various roles within a community given the current need or goal of the community. When one first becomes a member of community they take on more of a peripheral role but over time develop to a full time participant. Wenger also went on to describe the idea of learning trajectories. He believed there are five learning paths for any learners. These paths include: peripheral, inbound, insider, boundary, and outbound. Driscoll also discussed the impact signs have on situated cognition. He explores the notion that signs can be interpreted differently based on the situation, environment and social clues. The benefits of situated cognition can be seen in education. One of the most obvious and beneficial ways is through an internship or apprenticeship. The internship/apprenticeship experiences allows an individual to be immersed in the community to which they intend to belong. This process is evident in the student teacher model. Students work in classroom with a certified teacher and transition from student to “teacher” within that classroom. Other implications discussed are anchored instruction and learning communities. Anchored instruction allows students to belong to a simulated community and learning communities are true collaboratively environments in which students and teachers work together to achieve a common goal. At the conclusion of the chapter Driscoll discusses how assessments are affected by the situated cognition theory. McLellan suggests a three prong system for assessment: diagnosis, summary statistics, portfolios. These assessments allow students to show a sum of their work based on their experiences and social interactions as opposed to relying on the results from a standardized tests. Tests which don’t always accurately reflect one’s knowledge. Driscoll paints an excellent picture of situated cognition and its implications for instruction. The information provided is essential for any instructional designer. The assessment implications however, are what’s most worrisome. If one were to apply the situated cognition theory to their design one would want to consider thoroughly how to adequately assess their design. The process described in the text appears to be quite laborsome for a high school or middle school teacher who might teacher nearly 100 students a day. Mayer, R.E. & Pilegard C. (2014) Principles for managing essential processing in multimedia learning: segmenting, pre-training, and modality principles. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 316-344). New York: Cambridge. (e.g. Chapter 13) The text explores the concept of essential overload and how it can be reduced to ensure all students have the opportunity and ability to properly process and store essential information. When too much information is presented too quickly in a multimedia presentation essential overload occurs. There are three principles suggested to reduce essential overload. These methods are the segmenting, pre-training, and modality principles. The segmenting principle breaks down a large amount of information into smaller pieces that are more manageable for the learner. In some instances it even allows the learner to control the pace of the presentation. The pre-training principle ensures that the learner has sufficient prior knowledge before viewing the presentation. For example, learners should be familiar with key vocabulary and concepts prior to learning the new material. The modality principle states that it is difficult for a learner to process visual information and text simultaneously. Often, this is too much information which leads to cognitive overload. Therefore, visual information should be accompanied by narration and not on-screen text. Extensive research and studies have been conducting on the benefits of each principle and they all yielded positive results. However, it is important to properly assess a learner’s prior knowledge. It is believed that these principals have the most impact for learners with little prior knowledge. The ideas presented in this chapter are extremely relevant for any instructional designer. When designing instruction that includes multimedia, one must consider the needs of all learners. The text provides some concrete exampthree examples of how educators have used the ideas of cognitive apprenticeship in their lessons. In each example the teacher implored some degree of modeling, scaffolding, fading and coaching as mentioned in the traditional model. One of the overall themes is that students began to take ownership of their learning and were more engaged in achieving the designated goal. Towards the end of the text the authors provide a framework or blueprint for designing instruction. This section is extremely relevant and important for any instructional designer. They provided the reader with essential components to consider when designing instruction. They proposed that a learning environment is comprised of four parts: content, method, sequence and sociology. Each of these parts contains its own set of characteristics. The content and method component are much what one would assume from reading the title but the sequencing and sociology part provided intriguing information. The sequence in which an educator presents information is essential to success. One would imagine that you start with the easier skills and move on to the more difficult ones as the text suggests but it also suggests that the global skills be presented before the local skills. That is let the learner see the whole picture before showing them the steps to achieve that goal. This notion is interesting for an instructional designer to consider when designing instruction. Finally, as mentioned in previous articles the authors visit the ideas of situated learning and community of practice. Students should be intrinsically motivated and provided the opportunity to collaborate with others in an authentic environment. les that any designer should consider when creating instruction. Although the text was informative and provided rich examples it only skimmed the surface of each of the principles. The principles are crucial components for instructional designers to consider when designing instruction and therefore may require a more in depth look for further investigation. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American educator, 15(3), 6-11. This text describes the notion of cognitive apprenticeship and the implications it has for education. Cognitive apprenticeship is a type of instruction that makes learning visible. It allows the learner the opportunity to interact with the content and see learning take place. Traditional apprenticeship includes the ideas of modeling, scaffolding, fading and coaching. Each one of these ideas provides the learner with the opportunity to observe, engage, and reflect in one form of the other. It’s important to note that one essential component of traditional apprenticeship is the environment. Apprentices should learn in the environment in which they intend to one day become a master. This environment allows them to observe and interact with varying levels of mastery in a given field. In cognitive apprenticeship the teacher must be able to somehow make the learning visible, relevant, and easily transferred. These concepts come rather automatically in a traditional model of apprenticeship but require a little more creativity in the cognitive model. The text looked at three examples of how educators have used the ideas of cognitive apprenticeship in their lessons. In each example the teacher implored some degree of modeling, scaffolding, fading and coaching as mentioned in the traditional model. One of the overall themes is also that students began to take ownership of their learning and were more engaged in achieving the designated goal. Towards the end of the text the authors provide a framework or blueprint for designing instruction. This section is extremely relevant and important for any instructional designer. They provided the reader with essential components to consider when designing instruction. They proposed that a learning environment is comprised for four parts: content, method, sequence and sociology. Each of these parts contains its own set of characteristics. The content and method component are much what one would assume from reading the title but the sequencing and sociology components provided more intriguing information. The sequence in which an educator presents information is essential to success. One would imagine that you start with the easier skills and move on to the more difficult ones as the text suggests but it also proposes that the global skills be presented before the local skills. That is let the learner see the whole picture before showing them the steps to achieve that goal. This notion is interesting for an instructional designer to consider when designing instruction. Finally, as mentioned in previous articles the authors visit the ideas of situated learning and community of practice. Students should be intrinsically motivated and provided the opportunity to collaborate with others in an authentic environment. |
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